The Yager Museum, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY, is proud to host the exhibit, 20th Century Photographs from the Collection of Donald H. Baxter from May 2 through August 11, 2002. Baxter's collection includes work by many of the great photographers of the 20th century. The following Photo Facts provides information about the styles and photographic processes represented in the exhibition. For more information about the photographers, please click on the blue links.
Collecting Photography and Donald Baxter.
Autochrome. In 1904, the Lumière brothers invented the autochrome process in France, shown in this exhibit in photographs by Jacques-Henri Lartigue and Alfred Stieglitz. This was the first single-plate method of color photography. Although the procedure was difficult, the colors were extremely beautiful, and the graininess of the images created an effect that was associated with impressionist paintings.
Cibachrome. In 1958, the cibachrome process was patented and this made it possible to obtain rich color prints from positive transparencies without the use of a negative. These prints are very stable because they do not use paper but a translucent plastic film for their support. Martina Lopez uses this process to print out images that are made exclusively through computer imaging technology.
Chromogenic development. In this process a dye image is produced in an emulsion as a silver halide image is developed there simultaneously; the silver image is subsequently bleached away so that only the dye image remains.
Color. Although color photography was commercialized by the Lumière brothers, and became readily available in the 1930s with the introduction of the Kodachrome process, many art photographers did not embrace color until the 1970s. Prior to that time, purists such as Edward Weston and Ansel Adams condemned the use of color arguing that it was glamorous and thus only suitable for popular magazines and fashion photography. Because color enhanced realism, the expressive nature of the photograph was lost. In the 1970s Harry Callahan, who had worked extensively in black and white on images that dealt with the family, especially his wife Eleanor, began to explore the aesthetic potential of color through photographs of cities and landscapes. By the 1980s color served descriptive, expressive and satirical purposes and was widely accepted in artistic circles.
The term documentary photography has two meanings. In the broadest sense all photographs are documents providing evidence after the event that the event did actually occur. Generally, however, documentary photography refers to photographs of events that have been altered as little as possible by the photographer. Such photographs strive for objectivity and provide visual evidence; this includes works by Berenice Abbott, Bill Brandt, Walker Evans, August Sander and W. Eugene Smith. Unfortunately the ability to manipulate the image either physically or ideologically undermines photography's claim for reliable objectivity. For example, Evans was known to change the interior of his subject's homes for aesthetic purposes, and Brandt, in his documentary essay about the English at home, used his family members as models for the images of the upper-class. Others, however, such as BrassaÏ, who recorded prostitutes, opium addicts, lovers and performers in prewar Paris, are known for their non-judgmental images.
During the 30s Walker Evans worked briefly for the Farm Security Administration (FSA) and his spare style depicted the victims of the Depression with simplicity, directness and clarity.
The Great Depression prompted President F. D. Roosevelt to sponsor federal photographic projects that would make evident U.S. economic devastation in order to rally support for aid to farmers. The FSA (1935-1943) was the most successful of these projects; although Berenice Abbott's work on the changing nature of New York City also received federal funding through the Works Progress Administration.
Silver Prints. Most of the photographs in this exhibition are created by using the gelatin silver process. Gelatin is the essential binder for most photographic emulsions and was first used in 1871. By 1880 gelatin silver had supplanted all other methods of preparing the light-sensitive plates. This process, which includes glass plates for negatives and positives, celluloid nitrate film, and papers for positive prints, can be stored for long periods of time without losing its effectiveness. Gelatin silver prints are usually a neutral black, but can be modified by toning. Images can be easily enlarged without loss of detail.
Group f/64. (1932-1935) Ansel Adams, Edward Weston and Imogen Cunningham were all members of the influential Group f/64, so named because they used the smallest possible lens opening or aperture. This assured the maximum of clarity and definition in the photograph. Straight photography was favored and any form of manipulation, either before or after exposure, was discouraged. A strict respect for photography's unique characteristics, such as the use of large-format cameras, no cropping of original negatives, no use of glossy paper for prints, no enlargement, and perfect depth of field, was advocated. This approach dominated American photography through the 1960s.
The Nude. Although photographic pornography appeared on the scene almost immediately after the medium was invented, the treatment of the nude for many photographers was associated with the history of fine art. During the 19th century it was maintained that the photograph's inherent realism precluded any possibility of artistic photographs of the nude. Nevertheless, many photographers experimented with the subject matter, some manipulated the image to make it appear more like a painting, but by the arrival of modernism, photographers such as Weston, Callahan and Ruth Bernhard represented the nude in a more direct manner, although the image was often truncated.
Optical Distortion. In photography an optical distortion occurs when the camera lens does not accurately record the real object. Distortion can be caused by a flaw in the lens, or from other intentional effects, such as modifying the focal length through wide-angle lenses. Brandt's later work with the nude, which also uses unusual lighting effects, is an example of the use of a fish-eye lens.
Photojournalism. With the emergence of the newspaper in the 19th century; photographs could only be used through conversion to the printed forms of engraving, lithography, and eventually, in the 1880s, photogravures. Modern photojournalism, as evidenced in this exhibit by the work of Brandt, Robert Doisneau, Andre Kertesz, and W. Eugene Smith, developed with the introduction, in 1925, of the small-format camera, particularly the Leica 35mm. This was mobile and inconspicuous and allowed photographers to snap lively images of everyday life. Illustrated magazines, such as LIFE, introduced in 1936, made photojournalism popular. In the 1960s, with the onset of television reportage, photographers had to find new approaches to photojournalism. Growing doubts, however, about the very notion of photographic truth or objectivity have caused an identity crisis for contemporary photojournalists.
The Photo League. Aaron Siskind, W. Eugene Smith, Ansel Adams, Berenice Abbott and Edward Weston, were all members of The Photo League, which was established in New York City in 1936. The organization was committed to socially conscious photography although the styles and subject matter of the work of the members was extremely varied. The group was especially interested in documenting the effects of the Depression and Siskind, in particular, produced a remarkable study of Harlem. Because of the group's association with many left-wing organizations, the League was blacklisted as subversive in 1947. Many photographers who feared for their careers, such as Adams, left the organization at this time and the League ceased to exist in 1951.
The Photo-Secession. Alfred Stieglitz, often considered the "father" of American photography, created the Photo-Secession in 1902 as a way to signal a break with an academic brand of Pictorialism that had dominated photography in the late 19th century. Although originally featuring the romantic images associated with Pictorialism, Stieglitz eventually paved the way for the advent of American modernism through his support of contemporary subject matter, and eventually the straight aesthetic as found in the work of Paul Strand (not included in the exhibition). Stieglitz particularly wanted to establish a new awareness of photography as an art form in its own right. He did so by creating a market for photography and in 1905 opened his Little Galleries-later known as 291-at 291 Fifth Avenue, which also introduced the work of major European artists such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse to Americans.
Pictorialism. From 1886 to the early 1920s Pictorialism was popular in Europe and the United States. The formation of pictorialism resulted from the hotly debated subject of whether photography was an art form. In the 19th century many photographers felt that photography could only be considered art when it imitated painting in subject matter and format. The pictorialists, however, claimed that photography could be an art form through manipulation of the image either before or during development. Although many pictorialists altered their photographs through scratching, double exposures, artistic blurring, etc., Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Weston, who began their careers as Pictorialists, preferred the straight approach of printing on platinum.
Platinum print. William Willis invented the platinum printing process in 1873, and it remained popular for a long time because of its rich tonal range, subtle grays and ability to render details. Because of the high price of platinum in the 1920s, coupled with the aesthetic shift to gelatin silver prints especially promoted by Weston, platinum was replaced with palladium and the process fell into disfavor. When Weston later rejected Pictorialism absolutely, he destroyed much of his earlier work; fortunately, some of these early photographs have survived and one is included in this exhibition. Other contemporary photographers, such as Linda Connor, continue to explore this process.
Portraiture. From the invention of photography in 1839 through to the present portraiture has played a prominent role. In the 19th century photography allowed the middle-class and even the lower-class to obtain affordable images and mementos of their family members. In the 20th century photographic portraits were affected by the various aesthetic shifts, and many photographers, such as Yousuf Karsh and Arnold Newman, worked in styles halfway between the aesthetic and the commercial. Many photographers also pursued the potential for portraits to be used as social commentary; for example, August Sander produced a survey of the German people including social types from all classes and occupations with the intention of showing how the subject's environment corresponded to his/her individuality. The Nazi party banned these images in the 1930s.
Previsualization. Many photographers, such as Weston and Adams, found that they could create a mental image of the final print by examining the subject before they took the photograph. This previsualization involves a good understanding of the technique and technology of photography. The photographers calculated the look of their prints by understanding how the quality of light and subject matter would be expressed through the print. To do this they carefully selected exposure, development and printing to produce the desired image.
Snapshot. The term snapshot generally refers to amateur photographers who take photographs of family events with cheap, easy to use cameras. Snapshots were first made possible by the invention of rapid-shutter technology in the 1860s, and the production of faster film in the 1880s. Because this approach brings a sense of spontaneity to the image, many professional photographers have adopted the aesthetic of the snapshot. Instantaneity made amateur photographer, Jacques-Henri Lartigue's work greatly admired, but it was not until the introduction of the 35mm camera that the snapshot truly came into its own. Photographers represented in this exhibit, who have embraced the snapshot aesthetic are Robert Frank, Garry Winogrand and Emmet Gowin. Frank deliberately used the tilted angle often found in snapshots; a feature also found in Winogrand's work. Because Winogrand shot from the hip, he was not aware of the photographic image until it was developed; thus enhancing a sense of spontaneity. Gowin uses his family as a central motif in a way that is reminiscent of family snapshots.
Straight photography. Most of the photographs in this exhibit adhere to the straight aesthetic, which dominated photography in Europe and the United States from the early 1900s until 1970. The preference for "straight" came about when photographers embraced modernism and rejected painting as a model for photography. As a result photographers resolved to build upon photography's inherent and unique characteristics, especially the clarity of detail and the supposed accuracy and automatic recording of reality. Members of Group f/64, especially Weston and Adams, pushed the "straight" aesthetic to its limits. During the 1930s Ansel Adams developed the zone system, which was a codification of his approach to exposure, processing and printing. This complicated and technical process evolved from his interest in previsualizing the final print before the photograph was taken.
Links to other photographers in this exhibit:
Robert Doisneau
Lee Friedlander
Peter MacGill
Nicholas Nixon
Stephen Shore
Laurie Sieverts Snyder
Brett Weston
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This page was written and constructed by:
Dr. Fiona M. Dejardin
Professor of Art History
Associate Director, The Yager Museum
